Space For The New Orthopedic Service Line Construction Essay Example For Students

Space For The New Orthopedic Service Line Construction Essay Before the determination to construct is determined there are several extenuating factors that must be considered first which are: making client studies based on more defined community involvement, making market research to see the location to construct the installation, taking clip with the other specializer or component groups to listen to their input on constructing the installation given their past cognition, taking clip to concentrate on the other not-for-profits within the metropolis and the province to analyse their strategic places, and any other cognition beginning that can be utilized to do the best determination on constructing the medical office. We will write a custom essay on Space For The New Orthopedic Service Line Construction specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The consideration to concentrate would be to run into the demands of our possible primary clients or patients, any back uping current clients, professional medical staff, board members of the infirmary or medical group in order to run into the outlooks of the five twelvemonth strategic program. Another determination could be to concentrate non on holding patients come to us but constructing the office in vicinity communities which is the new focal point for constructing smaller medical office next to shopping which makes it more convenient for patients. In reexamining the advantages of constructing the new installation there are little sums given location of the installation such as if the installation was built on campus it would be an estimated sum of $ 600,000 versus the installation being build following to the campus which is a little addition of $ 700,000 which is a difference of merely 100,000. By constructing a secondary installation there would be extra cost for constructing an extra MRI which would be about $ 3,000,000 nevertheless, the off-set would be extra patients could use the MRI which would increase gross. By constructing the installation the physician group is able to utilize the construct of build-to-suit in order to plan a installation that has the capableness to concentrate on infinite efficiency and maximise productiveness. When mapping out programs for constructing a installation one facet is the cost of per square pes to concentrate on. So if our medical office is between 6,000-7,000 and $ 350.00 per square pes which includes the land purchase monetary value which would be upper limit of $ 2,450,000. However, if we build an office that is 10,000 square pes the monetary value beads by $ 200.00 per square pes which so equals $ 1,500,000 which would be less than the first sum the better determination would be to construct the 10,000 square pes edifice so in kernel there would be more edifice at less cost and room to spread out. When a medical establishment is sing spread outing it is extremely indispensable to concentrate on the four countries listed below: Quality and Safety Service Excellence Staff Achievement Growth and Profitability By constructing a installation the focal point will hold a stronger success rate given the individualised location and being able to hold a bigger impact based on being blended in with the infirmary Numberss. If the edifice were built the categories attending might increase to gt ; 75 % and the CMS orthopaedic index set could besides increase to gt ; 90th percentile which would specifically better the quality and safety focal point. By being in a location that is accessible by patients the best selling tool is by word of oral cavity of the patients and they might be likely to increase the mark of this step of gt ; 90th per centum every bit good as the physician satisfaction mark which all in all would run into the service excellence steps of the installation given the location the edifice is built in. The other facet would be holding a close medical office that specializes in orthopaedicss might diminish consensus of the infirmary by diminishing the surgeries which is at 14,800 and diminishing the figure of ER visits which is presently 36,100 which in bends would increase gross of the medical office. By ramifying off from the infirmary and edifice a installation the physician group would get down from the beginning and higher the best orthopaedic nursing staff to care for the patients and given the positive environment of the new office the keeping rate of the staff would increase to gt ; 90 % which would better the staff accomplishment steps. Last, the surgical instances could increase to over 2100, and the physical therapy visits could increase to over 6,500 given the size of the edifice and sum of doctors of healers that were hired to care for patients. This would in-turn increase the border of greater than $ 2,171,500 which would transcend the growing and profitableness steps. Another step to concentrate on is the revenue enhancement factor because a concern can subtract the revenue enhancements taken out on the construction on an one-year footing which can be a great cost nest eggs including subtracting involvement on the purchase loan, belongings revenue enhancements and other modification disbursals. Constructing this medical office it would implement a successful strategic program outlined in the boards five twelvemonth program and increase non merely in volume and improved fiscal public presentation for the infirmary concern. It will in-turn addition services offered to the community by utilizing the most advanced attacks to forestall, or diagnose, including handling disease processes impacting 1000s in the community. Outline1 B. Buying SPACE FOR THE NEW ORTHOPEDIC SERVICE LINE.2 c. LEASING SPACE FOR THE NEW ORTHOPEDIC SERVICE LINE.3 2. Discourse THE DISADVANTAGES ( LIABILITIES AND RISKS ) FOR EACH OF THE FOLLOWING Option:4 a. Building SPACE FOR THE NEW ORTHOPEDIC SERVICE LINE.5 B. Buying SPACE FOR THE NEW ORTHOPEDIC SERVICE LINE.6 c. LEASING SPACE FOR THE NEW ORTHOPEDIC SERVICE LINE.7 3. Recommend WHAT YOU CONSIDER TO BE THE BEST OPTION FOR THE FACILITY. B. Buying SPACE FOR THE NEW ORTHOPEDIC SERVICE LINE. Advantages of purchasing would include the revenue enhancement benefits for illustration the involvement on belongings revenue enhancements including mortgage could be tax-deductable and the investing belongings entirely could perchance deprecate and the costs included with having this type of infinite deemed as commercial could besides be revenue enhancement deductable. When purchasing a preexistent edifice it gives more chance to change over the infinite to the concern demands which can include constructing onto the bing belongings, or reconfiguring the belongings for a better concern flow consequence or even remotion of certain parts of the belongings. The revenue enhancement factor would besides include any type of betterments that are made to a commercial existent estate investing could be deducted for up to 39 old ages. A depreciation of a edifice could be taken into history for 39 old ages every bit good which is another advantage. If the edifice is purchased for $ 251,000 and state the land it stands on is valued at $ 61,000 so the company could compose off a spot less than $ 5,500 yearly. The one-year involvement can besides be deducted on the purchase loan, any type of belongings revenue enhancements and extra disbursals that measure up under revenue enhancement codifications. When borrowing money for a commercial investing from any loaner the per centum could be between 60 % -80 % or even higher given the addition for being medical users which could be up to 90 % for a acquisition cost or undertaking cost which can necessitate a type of investing of the left over hard currency and stipulate that the difference in hard currency be reinvested in the concern anyplace between 10 % -40 % . A bank loaner could necessitate a higher down payment but in exchange include a sensible adoption term would be negotiated in the contracts. The advantage to purchasing a commercial edifice is that a bank loaner looks at owner-occupied type concerns in a medical capacity more favourably and would allow the petition for loaning. In purchasing a commercial edifice there would be no rent accommodations and the mortgage would be a set sum each month so that there is a clear thought of any costs in the hereafter. The fixed/variable cost factor is costs that would be set particularly if the fixed-rate type of loan was issued for the belongings. As a merchandising point to having commercial belongings if the value of the belongings has increased that is another advantage for doing increased net income. The grasp factor is considered a 2nd concern for illustration it could be considered existent estate investment by the company. If there is extra fresh infinite the determination could be made to lease out parts of the edifice to outside chances to make extra income from the rent of those parties. .u28cf9fec34d84c33955e35c0997de5e5 , .u28cf9fec34d84c33955e35c0997de5e5 .postImageUrl , .u28cf9fec34d84c33955e35c0997de5e5 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u28cf9fec34d84c33955e35c0997de5e5 , .u28cf9fec34d84c33955e35c0997de5e5:hover , .u28cf9fec34d84c33955e35c0997de5e5:visited , .u28cf9fec34d84c33955e35c0997de5e5:active { border:0!important; } .u28cf9fec34d84c33955e35c0997de5e5 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u28cf9fec34d84c33955e35c0997de5e5 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u28cf9fec34d84c33955e35c0997de5e5:active , .u28cf9fec34d84c33955e35c0997de5e5:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u28cf9fec34d84c33955e35c0997de5e5 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u28cf9fec34d84c33955e35c0997de5e5 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u28cf9fec34d84c33955e35c0997de5e5 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u28cf9fec34d84c33955e35c0997de5e5 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u28cf9fec34d84c33955e35c0997de5e5:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u28cf9fec34d84c33955e35c0997de5e5 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u28cf9fec34d84c33955e35c0997de5e5 .u28cf9fec34d84c33955e35c0997de5e5-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u28cf9fec34d84c33955e35c0997de5e5:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The Sewerage System In Malaysia Construction Essayc. LEASING SPACE FOR THE NEW ORTHOPEDIC SERVICE LINE. Renting advantages to doctors could be a great chance for utilizing the fundss to put in the latest and greatest medical engineering of equipment or computerized electronic medical record systems alternatively of utilizing hard currency for edifice or purchasing a medical office and holding hard currency tied up in investing belongingss. Renting is better on a concern hard currency flow because when buying occurs there is a big sum of finance tied up in the equity of the edifice itself. By renting advantage it truly wo nt necessitate a big sum of capital to get down. By holding this money available which is known as working capital it opens the door to new chances that can originate in the hereafter. When renting a edifice it makes it simpler to be able to travel into premier locations in the hereafter such as a vicinity medical office mixed in with shopping promenades and this in-turn will extinguish the undertaking of engaging a existent estate agent and all that is involved with selling the belongings before resigning. By renting the medical office constructing the money paid in the rental could perchance be used as a revenue enhancement tax write-off. Using the hard currency spending factor consequence the company would non hold to set away much money as it would if edifice or purchasing a medical office. The growing factor would concentrate on if the infinite is outgrown given the sum of patients seen by the doctors in the medical office within the five twelvemonth program so the determination could be made to buy or purchase a larger edifice. If portion of the edifice was leased to several different concerns and the proprietor was busying portion of the edifice than it is money in the bank by resigning that peculiar infinite and traveling to a larger one but still holding other concerns resume the unfastened infinite. In some cases if more infinite was needed to spread out and the office infinite was available by the proprietor so renting more of that medical office infinite could be an chance to spread out without the cost of buying a edifice which would extinguish the cost of traveling. 2. Discourse THE DISADVANTAGES ( LIABILITIES AND RISKS ) FOR EACH OF THE FOLLOWING Option: a. Building SPACE FOR THE NEW ORTHOPEDIC SERVICE LINE. Part of constructing the installation takes into history the site choice either on the infirmary campus or off campus and analysis, any land development and regulative blessings that must be followed, direction of the design professionals and advisers specific to engineering. The most of import piece would be the cognition of medical office edifice designs and the appropriate licensing and license demands by metropolis and province required could be dearly-won by holding to engage the professional that has up to day of the month cognition and experience. Another of import facet is the regulative blessings based on health care installations and any start-up demands mandated specifically to specialise patterns such as orthopaedicss to include twenty-four hours surgery or processs and radiation MRI edifices that could be a dearly-won disadvantage. All of these specialized countries could be a edifice disadvantage if the incorrect individual is doing the determinations because mulcts and punishments could be imposed if there are errors. Another piece to see is the cost of building companies to construct the office which could be decided by bespeaking competitory commands from the building companies and so taking the best command for the occupation given the specifications of the undertaking. The commands themselves could be a disadvantage because of the clip it takes to acquire the commands needed in order to do the determination. The other monetary value to concentrate goes with building such as the manufacturer monetary value index of stuffs. As the economic system improves in society the monetary value of the finished merchandise could increase based on increased cost of stuffs. Constructing a installation is truly the deployment of capital that is being considered on all facets of this undertaking and is seen as a really big disadvantage because the capital is tied up. The growing factor cold be a disadvantage given today purchasing a edifice is the current demand and possibly attractive to the concern at this clip. However, this disadvantage ca nt foretell 100 % what the concern will necessitate in infinite or the growing in the following 5-10 twelvemonth span. Time is money and the disadvantage of edifice would intend that there would necessitate to be made contracts of dialogue created and signed for non merely the building company that will construct the installation but besides the companies in which the stuffs to be used would necessitate contracts specific to monetary value and the dialogue that would necessitate to happen for pricing. These contracts would necessitate to be negotiated so that both parties come to understandings on the footings and this could take up to 90 yearss to finish in some instances. B. Buying SPACE FOR THE NEW ORTHOPEDIC SERVICE LINE. Buying disadvantages would be there would be more upfront costs than expected. The initial capital would include a down payment, and the possibility of betterments to belongings which increases cost and this would include any type of belongings assessments and care costs. There should besides be an analysis of the cost of this chance of the money being spent and what other options are available if the purchasing of the medical office was nt an option which if an analysis was nt completed so this could be seen as a purchasing disadvantage because all options were nt considered. There could be a possibility on the belongings balance sheet that could ensue in limitations of future adoption which can be the consequence of this existent estate debt owed. This in-turn complicates things by doing things hard to alter the concern based on any type of market tendencies in the hereafter because of the capital being tied up in existent estate. By purchasing this could take the physician group clip to buy the exact belongings needed based on concern purposed and this would curtail patterns until the edifice was found and purchased. In medical offices today the location is indispensable and by having the edifice a big disadvantage would be doing things hard to follow market tendencies and travel to locations that are more convenient for the community and for the concern. By having the edifice this creates unanticipated operational costs and clip and energy in keeping the edifice and the bing belongings environing the edifice. This can be really dearly-won and deter from concern with clip and money. If the determination was to rent out portion of the edifice so that is adding a whole other sum of disbursals that is unanticipated into the procedure. There would be extra disbursals in being a landlord every bit good proprietor of the edifice. The hard currency spending factor would be another disadvantage given more money would be needed in order to buy a edifice alternatively of leasing. c. LEASING SPACE FOR THE NEW ORTHOPEDIC SERVICE LINE. Renting disadvantages would include costs that are unexpected such as possible rent additions particularly during the clip in which the rental expires. Sometimes in the leasing contracts there could be an allowance of one-year additions includes based on the consumer monetary value index that if non pointed out could be extended. By renting there is a limitation based on the infinite and it accommodating to the demands of the concern at that place might non be room for enlargement. When the concern needs enlargement and the infinite is limited there is merely one pick which is to resign which means if the rental or contract is for a period of clip and the demand of the concern is under that sum of clip so by the footings of the contract there would be mulcts and punishments involved if resigning before the termination day of the month of the contract of the rental. The fixed/variable cost factor is a big disadvantage based on the market trends particularly when the rental expires. The immense disadvantage to leasing is that the concern will be dependent on the landlord and what they are willing to alter or modify for concern demands. One piece a landlord proprietor can make is to end the contract rental if they have other programs for the belongings such as merchandising. .uca144cf1e854bd7eefcac990400b808b , .uca144cf1e854bd7eefcac990400b808b .postImageUrl , .uca144cf1e854bd7eefcac990400b808b .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uca144cf1e854bd7eefcac990400b808b , .uca144cf1e854bd7eefcac990400b808b:hover , .uca144cf1e854bd7eefcac990400b808b:visited , .uca144cf1e854bd7eefcac990400b808b:active { border:0!important; } .uca144cf1e854bd7eefcac990400b808b .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uca144cf1e854bd7eefcac990400b808b { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uca144cf1e854bd7eefcac990400b808b:active , .uca144cf1e854bd7eefcac990400b808b:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uca144cf1e854bd7eefcac990400b808b .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uca144cf1e854bd7eefcac990400b808b .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uca144cf1e854bd7eefcac990400b808b .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uca144cf1e854bd7eefcac990400b808b .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uca144cf1e854bd7eefcac990400b808b:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uca144cf1e854bd7eefcac990400b808b .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uca144cf1e854bd7eefcac990400b808b .uca144cf1e854bd7eefcac990400b808b-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uca144cf1e854bd7eefcac990400b808b:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: SPEECH PAPER ON WEDDINGS EssayRenting a edifice is non an easy one given the market tendencies, the revenue enhancement involved, and the fiscal analysis that would necessitate to be completed before this determination to rent a concern edifice was complete which takes clip and money. An proprietor of a medical office can be forced to increase rent of the leased belongings to run into just market value in attachment of Medicare ordinances. Another disadvantage is sing the fact of it being a medical office and the negotiated contract of a long term rental which varies between 5-15 old ages to gauge the betterments that can be dearly-won to the edifice which are known as ac ross-the-board contract rentals and ternary net contract rentals which means that the cost of the operating disbursals in be changed to impact the doctor group that leases the edifice which can be really much a immense dearly-won disadvantage. 3. Recommend WHAT YOU CONSIDER TO BE THE BEST OPTION FOR THE FACILITY. The recommendation sing edifice, purchasing, or renting a medical office would be to concentrate on clear aims in the first measure of the analysis. The impact of the determination will impact the fundss of the concern and any relationships with sellers and clients. The list of aims demands to be compiled to place all facets needed for ownership versus renting. By analysing this information it could convey forth facets that were nt antecedently considered at the oncoming of the beginning which can alter the overall determination. Some of the facts to see in the recommendation are: Cost Control: When necessitating office infinite this is considered due to the alteration in market tendencies and concern schemes every bit far as where the concern demands to alter or better or spread out. Businesss when doing these type of determinations normally have capital to put over long footings. However, if purchasing a edifice the construction itself, may necessitate updates or betterments which would diminish the sum of capital for the betterments to happen. Location of the edifice: Business successful is extremely dependent on the location of services it offices to the community. One of the critical factors in physician pattern today is the handiness and propinquity for the patients which can warrant paying a larger rental of office infinite based on this factor. If the edifice is bought or built and the countries that surround it is less desirable for patients so, the determination to defy any long term understandings might be considered. In this type of state of affairs a rental would be more desirable based on the unfastened door of being able to relocate to another installation when the concern demands alteration. Expansion is another factor to see based on the demands of the community and the concern demands. If a rental was signed so the permission to spread out or change the edifice would necessitate to be made by the proprietor and the costs of those alterations would be based on the negotiated contract footings that were signed at the start. By having the construction the difference is it makes it easier to alter the infinite of the edifice without traveling through a landlord. Tax advantage focal point would be to see the current revenue enhancement Torahs of the province and have the ability to shelter any type of nonexempt income. The write offs are increased over the last 20+ old ages including one-year operating losingss to be claimed that can no longer be used to off-set other nonexempt income as it was in the old old ages. The losingss that occur can perchance be used against existent estate ventures and brought frontward in order to still salvage on the revenue enhancements. The advantage could be that any gross of the existent estate itself could be taxed at the capital additions rate of return and this could be in fact lower than normal revenue enhancement rates. In all there is revenue enhancement advantages of existent estate belongings that is owned versus leased but the full determination should non be entirely based on the revenue enhancement factors. When renting a belongings the related tenancy cost including rent, could be revenue enhancem ent deductable for some kind of a revenue enhancement decrease. The ROI ( Return On Investment ) has shown that physician groups have been disappointed at the retirement age because of deficiency of equity in the concern. Several factors include belongings overpayment, belongings that has been leveraged over, deficiency of care on the belongings, and unknown market conditions based on the economic system. If an assessment is done decently before the edifice is purchased it would demo the current carnival market value, funding that is imparting favourable to a bank establishment, and ways for equity build up on the belongings in inquiry. If having the edifice there is a manner to do debt service payments each month, which in-turn increases the equity of the belongings by cut downing the chief debt. By renting the belongings alternatively of purchasing there is no concern sing equity that is missing or principle debt needing to be paid off base do nt eh negotiated contract footings of the loan. By renting the up support of the edifice is the duty o f the proprietor non the renter that leases the edifice. Finance Numberss should be evaluate by a CPA ( Certified Public Account ) to fix a type of fiscal projection that can demo costs associated with renting the edifice versus buying the edifice or edifice the construction. This appraisal will be needed in the event the determination to buy a edifice is decided. This study can demo income that is nonexempt or at a loss and can besides demo the hard currency flow analysis of what payment is needed is bought, built or leased. Negotiated contract footings are considered in all three facets of edifice, purchasing, and renting. These contract footings show fiscal loaner rates and footings for funding or they can demo footings based on renting from the proprietor of the edifice construction. Recommendation would be to rent the edifice construction in order to hold capital in modesty. By prosecuting a design designer and estimation costs of any redevelopments needed in progress gives a better image of what is needed in fundss to get down. Given the chance to alter based on market tendencies and location is appealing and an option based on renting the infinite of an office edifice. In reexamining the fact that an OB/GYN forte group was non successful in a old effort allows for a test period to demo if the demands of the community will be met with the orthopaedic office. If the market tendency in times shows that the demand is non every bit anticipated as expected so it is easier to end a rental so selling an office edifice. Any costs associated with leasing is non ever the renters duty this can be an advantage based on the negotiated contract footings of the rental and possibly the costs could be shared or perchance a dialogue of several months of rent would non necessitate paid while the physician group paid for the necessary alterations to the edifice based on the concern. By giving the orthopaedic pattern clip to entree any long-run ends, and concentrate on hard currency demands needed weighed against the hazard of long term edifice ownership the determination to else would increase gross to put in new engineering equipment and computing machine electronic medical record systems. The rental option would in-turn free up some of the capital for other type of concern investings to increase gross. Given the capriciousness of the current economic system, loss of occupations for people in the community which amounts to loss of health care coverage which in-turn is loss of concern for the orthopaedic pattern. It is better to do a impermanent determination to rent a installation and see what the community need will be in 5 old ages from now.

Robert Bunsen essays

Robert Bunsen essays Robert Wilhelm Bunsens name was famous for a a few discoveries in the field of chemistry. For example... you might recognize Bunsen from the lab device, the Bunsen Burner. He also helped invent the spectroscope and discovered spectrum analysis. And at the beginning of his career, he discovered that iron oxide is an antidote for arsenic. Robert Bunsen was born on March 31st, 1811 in Gottingen, Germany. He was educated at the University of Gottingen, and between 1836 and 1852, he taught at the Polytechnic Institute in Kassel and the universities of Marburg + Breslau. He was considered as one of the greatest chemists in the world all because of his discoveries and inventions. Though Bunsens name may make you think about the Bunsen Burner (by popular belief), it turns out that he had little to do with the invention. Although he popularized the device, the credit for the design goes to the British chemist/physicist, Michael Faraday. Bunsen improved the burner's design to aid in spectroscopy. The bunsen burner was a heating device thats used in labs because it proveides a hot, steady and smokeless flame. It was named after Robert Bunsen because he was the one who adapted the concept of the gas-air burner in 1855. The burner is a short and vertical tube of metal connected to a gas source and theres a hole at the bottom to admit the air. The flow of the air is controlled by an adjustable collar on the tube. Within five years of the development of the burner, Bunsen and was deeply involved with spectroscopy, inventing another instrument: the Bunsen-Kirchhoff spectroscope. This instrument of chemical analysis can trace its ancestry to components like a "prism, a cigar box, and two ends of otherwise unusable old telescopes. From the beginnings came the instrument which proved to be of importance in chemical analysis and the discovery of new elements. ...

The Best Way to Read the SAT Writing Passages

The Best Way to Read the SAT Writing Passages SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips The format of the SAT Writing section is very unique, and you may not have taken a test with a similar format. To reach your target score, you're going to need a specific approach to tackle the passage-based questions. In this article, I will explain the various approaches you can take when reading the SAT Writing passages, and I'll guide you on how to identify the strategy that will work best for you. Why Do You Need a Specific Approach to Reading SAT WritingPassages? The format of the SAT Writing section is unique and determining which approach will work best for you will help you combat likely mistakes. Some students only look at the underlined portions of sentences without understanding their context. Another common mistake is to rush through the section and make careless mistakes. Having a tested approach will help you maximize your efficiency. Regardless of the approach you take, you should always read the complete sentence that contains the underlined portion. Also, you have to be consistent. Once you decide the best approach for you, use that approach on all your practice questions. Omar Reyes/Flickr The Top 4Strategies for Reading SAT Writing Passages These are the different approaches you can take to reading the passages. #1: Paragraph-by-Paragraph For this approach, you read each paragraph, and then you answer the questions in that paragraph. The benefits of using this approach are that you’ll understand what’s going on in the passage before you answer questions, and you’ll be forced to read full sentences before answering questions. The main drawback of this approach is that it can be time-consuming. I recommend trying this approach on a practice section and seeing if you’re able to finish the section in 35 minutes. If you only need a couple extra minutes to finish, this approach can still work for you because you'll probably speed up with repeated practice. If you don't feel comfortable or confident being able to finish using this approach, you may want to use one of the other strategies I'll discuss. Let's go through how the paragraph-by-paragraph approach works using a practice SAT Writing section. If you were using the paragraph-by-paragraph approach on this section, you would read the entire paragraph up until â€Å"conversation† and then do question 31. This approach would work well here because question 31 requires an understanding of the paragraph. Then, you would read the next paragraph before attempting to answer questions 32 and 33. On the SAT, you would repeat this process for each paragraph in each passage. In case you're curious, I've provided the answers to these questions. Answers:31. C, 32. A, 33. A Paragraphetzel (Windell Oskay/Flickr) #2: Answer as You Go In this approach, you read through the passage, and when you come to an underlined portion, you read past it to the end of the sentence. Then you answer the question before continuing. The benefits of this strategy are that it’s straightforward and fast. It’s a good strategy to try if you find yourself running out of time on the paragraph-by-paragraph approach. The biggest drawback of this strategy is that you may have trouble answering questions about paragraphs and transitions that require a more thorough understanding of the passage. Personally, I like to use the answer as you go approach, but when I come to a question that requires me to read more of the passage, I continue reading until I have enough information to correctly answer the question. You can also save the questions that require a more complete understanding of the passage until the end when you’ve answered the other questions and have completely read the passage. If you use the answer as you go strategy, make sure you read until the end of sentences before answering questions. Here’s how to use this approach correctly: If you used this approach, you would read the paragraph up until â€Å"machines† before doing question 26. After completing question 26, you would read the next sentence until â€Å"presentations.† Then you would do question 27. Finally, you would read the final sentence of the paragraph and then do question 28. For question 28, you may need to refer to the earlier paragraphs or the paragraph that follows to eliminate answer choices. However, for this particular question, because you will have read the entire passage up until this point, you can correctly answer this question without doing any additional reading. While this approach is quicker, it can lead to more errors if you’re unable to recognize when you need to do more reading to correctly answer questions. Answers:26. A, 27. B, 28. C #3: Sentence-by-Sentence In the sentence-by-sentence approach, you only read sentences that include underlined portions. This strategy has significant drawbacks because you won’t comprehend the passage as well, and that may make answering some of the writing style questions that require a more thorough understanding of the passage rather difficult. I don’t recommend using this approach if you’re shooting for a 650 or above on Reading and Writing. However, if you find yourself running out of time using other approaches or you’re getting distracted by irrelevant details, this could be a good approach for you. Just make sure you’re reading the entire sentence. Let’s take a look at this approach in practice: Read the first sentence and then do questions 34 and 35. Then read the next sentence and do 36. After, you can skip the sentence that starts with "Planned" and read the sentence containing 37 that starts with â€Å"It also reinforces.† Again, if you encounter a question that requires a more thorough understanding of the passage, you can skip it and come back to it later, or you can read more of the passage until you know enough to answer the question. If you’re using this strategy, follow this approach for each question in every passage. Answers:34. D, 35. A, 36. D, 37. A #4: Passage First The last approach is to skim the entire passage, and then go back through using sentence-by-sentence to answer the questions. This strategy is the most thorough, and it can be helpful if you find yourself having trouble on the organization or big picture questions. However, this approach can take too much time and be trouble than it’s worth.If you're a fast reader and have the most difficulty with the organization and content-based questions, this approach can be beneficial. If you struggle with time or feel more comfortable answering the questions as you read the passage, then this isn't the ideal approach for you. How to Find the Right Strategy and Use It Effectively Here are the steps to go through to figure out which approach to use. Step #1: Try Paragraph-by-Paragraph For most students, this approach will yield the best results. It may not be the best one for you, but try it first to see how it works. Step #2: Analyze Why You’re Missing Questions to Decide on the Best Approach After you finish your practice section, go over it very carefully; figure out why you got questions wrong and where you struggled. Make sure you know how to review practice tests. Think about these questions to decide which approach to try: Did you run out of time? If you’re running out of time with 5 or fewer questions left, try the answer as you go approach. If you’re running out of time with 6 or more, try sentence-by-sentence. Do you have time left over? How much? If you have more than 3-4 minutes left at the end and you’re missing questions, you need to slow down. You’re probably rushing. Make sure to read the passage and questions carefully. Are you missing a lot of the big picture questions that ask about entire paragraphs or the passage as a whole? If so, you may want to focus on your reading comprehension and attentively reading the passage. Based on your answers to these questions, decide which approach is best for you, and then practice that approach. It may take a couple of attempts to figure out what works best for you. Remember that regardless of which approach you take, you need to read the whole sentence before answering questions. Step #3: Practice Your Approach Repeatedly Once you decide on an approach, use it on every practice test and question. The purpose of having a designated approach to the passages is to enable you to correctly answer the questions as efficiently as possible. If you’re having difficulty maintaining a certain approach, you may want to try another one that’s easier for you to follow. It may take some time to find the best approach for you, but once you find it, you’ll be able to maximize your score. These approaches only work if you use them consistently. What's Next? If you're trying to master the content for SAT Writing, make sure you know the 12 most important grammar rules. Also, you're going to want to review my articles on punctuation and transitions. For those of you aiming for perfection, get expert advice from a perfect scorer on how to get a 1600. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points? Check out our best-in-class online SAT prep program. We guarantee your money back if you don't improve your SAT score by 160 points or more. Our program is entirely online, and it customizes what you study to your strengths and weaknesses. If you liked this Writing and grammar lesson, you'll love our program.Along with more detailed lessons, you'll get thousands ofpractice problems organized by individual skills so you learn most effectively. We'll also give you a step-by-step program to follow so you'll never be confused about what to study next. Check out our 5-day free trial:

Discussion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 83

Discussion - Essay Example While my preference to be a quiet person during teamwork has hindered my role as a team member, it has also helped strengthen the team in many ways. For instance, I have not been able to communicate effectively during teamwork and this has adversely affected the perception of my team members towards me. Additionally, I have not been able to work to my full potential during teamwork because some of my team members see me as hands off person when it comes to critical matters that are supposed to be handled by all the team members. When it comes to the benefit of my preference as a suite person to my behavior, I have to note that I have developed a listening attitude over the years and this has helped progress my team in various ways. This means that I have helped my team by analyzing each of the perception of my team members before coming up with a conclusive blend of ideas. This has greatly benefited my role as a team member by working behind the scenes. Owing to the fact that my preferences may portray me as a resigned person, I have developed various strategies for managing my preferences so that I behave in a way that is most effective for a team member. Some of them include being proactive when performing various tasks as a team and communicating to team members where necessary as a way of opening

Sociology of Law and Punishment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Sociology of Law and Punishment - Essay Example Norbert Elias suggests that civilisation transform human habitus so that violence in all forms is gradually subjected to greater and more sophisticated forms of management and control. 'Decivilisation' according to him, encompasses processes which produce an increase in violence and a breakdown in the stability and consistency of social relations. What remains unexplored is the extent to which attempts to bring about civilisation, have revolved around essentially violent policies and practices (Robert van Krieken, Abstract, The British Journal of Sociology, Volume 50 Issue 2). Nils Christie, in Crime Control as Industry, suggests that the spiralling prison populations, particularly in the United States, represent a move towards gulags western style, in much the same way that Zygmunt Bauman saw modernity itself as creating the possibility for the Holocaust. For Christie the current 'gulagisation' of the West is not an aberration of modern society, but something that occurs naturally within it. Pratt's book suggests that man may be moving into an area of penal control that takes one beyond the gulag. The gulag it says may not be a sufficient modality of punishment to absorb the punitive sentiments of modern societies. What we find is the supplementation of modern penal sanctions by new forms of legal and extra legal punishments. For Christie, there is hope, that at some point, good sense of the ordinary people will prevail and counter the trends that the forces of modernity made possible. It is argued that there is no goodness to human values and public sen timent: unleashing them may only add to the spiral of penal control (Beyond gulags western style A reconsideration of Nils Christie's crime control as industry, Abstract, Pratt. J). 2.0 Introspection Elias offers a particular paradigm for sociological thought which opposes both the structural-functionalist and methodological-individualist tendencies in sociology. The concept that he developed hoped to severe and expose many of the central dilemmas in sociology, especially the opponents of action and structure, individualism and society. Elias' 'Civilising Process' is contentious, and overlooked with suspicion. Elias deviates from the more fashionable trends in sociology to dig deep into retrospection and seek the unknown. His writing has been a source of ideas and has appealed the senses of those who crave for the unknown. Commentators have veered between two theological pointers; an uncompromising acceptance or ungenerous rejection. His work frequently is a contradiction between supposedly admiring 'followers' and critics. To appreciate Elias, one needs to steer a path between the lines. His handling of human issues; emotions, attitudes towards the body, sexuality, socialisation, and so on, reflected a balanced and systematic approach. His analysis of the human mind is of significant relevance in the context of his larger-scale processes in State formation, urbanisation and

Nitric Oxide Synthase Impairment for Baroreflex Dysfunction

Nitric Oxide Synthase Impairment for Baroreflex Dysfunction Harmit Bindra Critical Appraisal: Impairment of Nitric Oxide Synthase but Not Heme Oxygenase Accounts for Baroreflex Dysfunction Caused by Chronic Nicotine in Female Rats Lay Abstract Introduction: The baroreflex or baroreceptor sensitivity is a physiological parameter that regulates changes in blood pressure. Baroreflex dysfunction is thought to contribute to many of the cardiovascular changes caused by chronic intake of nicotine. Nitric oxide (NO) and carbon monoxide (CO) can be synthesised in the endothelial cells by the action of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and hemeoxygenase (HO), respectively. Inhibition of NOS and HO mediated pathways have been thought to cause reduction in baroreflex sensitivity similar to that of nicotine. This study targets these two pathways and their possible interactions in an attempt to reverse the deteriorating cardiovascular effects caused by nicotine. Methods: The sensitivity of baroreflex was determined by measuring changes in heart rate in response to changes in mean arterial pressure induced by sodium nitroprusside (SNP) and phenylephrine (PE). SNP and PE exert these cardiovascular changes by affecting the diameter of blood vessels. Six groups of conscious female rats were used (6-8 rats/group) to study the effect of NOS on the baroreflex dysfunction caused by nicotine. Rats were treated either with nicotine or saline solution for 2 weeks. Baroreflex curves using random doses of SNP and PE were obtained in conscious rats on day 14 after treating these rats with L-NAME (inhibitor of NOS), L-arginine (substrate of NOS) or saline solution for 15 minutes. In a second study, another group of 7 rats treated with nicotine was used to find out whether HO inhibition by zinc protoporphyrin (ZnPP) abolishes the baroreflex response provoked by L-arginine. Baroreflex sensitivity was measured after treating rats with L-arginine and ZnPP for 15 minutes. Finally, the effects of the inducer and inhibitor of HO, hemin and ZnPP respectively, were investigated on the baroreflex dysfunction. Results: Inhibition of NOS using L-NAME caused a similar reduction in the baroreflex response as nicotine. This effect could be reversed with L-arginine. No further reduction in baroreflex response was evident in rats treated with both nicotine and L-NAME. Interestingly, HO inhibitor led to no reduction in baroreflex response and did not reverse any changes in baroreflex activity caused by nicotine. This implies that there is no direct role of HO mediated pathways in the nicotinic-baroreflex activity. On the contrary, there was an increase in baroreflex activity when HO activity was facilitated. In conclusion, inhibition of NOS is responsible for reduction in baroreflex sensitivity caused by nicotine. Background information and rationale for carrying out the work Smoking cigarettes is one of the most well established causes of mortality in the world and it is well known for its devastating effects on the quality of life and the impact it has on the families, including their psychological, social and physical well being. The majority of the harmful cardiovascular effects of smoking arise from the use of nicotine. Chronic intake of nicotine has been shown to reduce baroreceptor reflexes by decreasing the responsiveness of stretch receptors in the carotid sinus together with arterial compliance (Ashworth-Preece et al., 1998; Giannattasio et al., 1994). Nitric oxide (NO) is highly reactive gas, synthesised via three isoforms of nitric oxide synthase, including endothelial nitric oxide (eNOS), neuronal nitric oxide (nNOS) and inducible nitric oxide (iNOS). NO has been involved in various physiological pathways. For instance, eNOS results in arterial vasodilation by causing relaxation of vascular smooth muscles (Prado et al., 2011). nNOS plays an important role in neuronal activity by serving as a neurotransmitter. iNOS is generated by the phagocytes to invade the bacteria as part of immune response. NO has an ability to diffuse through and act as an intracellular messenger. It has been implicated in strengthening the synapses (long term potentiation) in learning and cause NMDA induced neurotoxicity in Parkinson’s disease (Taqatqeh et al., 2009). In a study carried out using brainstem nuclei of rats, it was found that inhibiting NOS in the central nervous system reduced baroreflex activation (Lo et al., 1996). Carbon monoxide (CO) has long been considered to be a toxic gas due to its high affinity for haemoglobin over oxygen. Contrary to popular belief, our body cells can also synthesise CO via heme oxygenase (HO) an enzyme that results in the generation of CO by catalysing the conversion of heme to biliverdin (Abraham Kappas., 2008). It has been established that inhibition of CO formed by HO reduces reflex activity as well as bradycardic response provoked by glutamate in the nucleus of the solitary tract (Lin et al., 2004). Other studies have independently found that inhibition of HO induced CO increases blood pressure systemically (Zhang et al., 2001). Interestingly, there seem to be some sort of interaction going on between NO/NOS and CO/HO pathways (Li et al., 2009). Indeed, the endogenous effects of these two molecules are provoked by the activation of soluble guanylate cyclase and a further increase in the levels of cGMP (Tzeng., 2009). Although there is a crosslink between these pathways, it has not been researched whether interruption of these mediators alone or disruption in their mutual interaction is responsible for the baroreceptor dysfunction mediated by nicotine. Approaches to the question The study was split into two groups to evaluate the role of NO/NOS and CO/HO pathways in nicotine induced baroreflex depression. In a first study, six small groups of female rats, ranging from 6-8 in each group, were used to study the effect of NOS on the baroreflex dysfunction. Three of these groups were given intraperitoneal nicotine for 2 weeks using a dosage of 2mg/kg/day, whereas the remaining groups were treated with saline solution. These rats were cannulated intravascularly on day 12. Baroreflex curves using SNP and PE were obtained in conscious rats on day 14 after treating these rats with L-NAME, L-arginine or saline solution for 15 minutes. In a second study, another group of 7 rats treated with nicotine were used to find out whether HO inhibition by ZnPP abolishes the baroreflex response provoked by L-arginine. Baroreceptor sensitivity was measured after treating rats with L-arginine and ZnPP for 15 minutes. The sensitivity of baroreceptors was determined by measuring changes in heart rate in response to changes in mean arterial pressure induced by vasoactive drugs, such as sodium nitroprusside (SNP) and phenylephrine (PE). This was carried out using regression analysis. Randomised doses SNP and PE doses, ranging from 1 to 16 µg/kg, were injected intravenously to obtain a baroreflex curve. An index of baroreflex activity was found by expressing the slope of the regression line as beats/min/mmHg. In the final part of the study, the effects of the inducer and inhibitor of HO, hemin and ZnPP respectively, were investigated on the baroreceptor dysfunction induced by nicotine. This was done using 5 different groups (5-8 female rats/group) for a 2 weeks period in which baroreflex testing was carried out using hemin, ZnPP, hemin + L-NAME, hemin + ODQ (guanylate cyclase inhibitor), and CORM-2 (CO releasing agent). Two further control groups were used in which rats received saline solution for 2 weeks and the baroreflex readings were then taken post-treatment with hemin or CORM-2. To measure the activity of NOS and HO, rats were treated with nicotine or saline for 2 weeks in the presence or absence of hemin and their brainstem was dissected and freezed at -80C. Key Results and analysis Both nicotine and NOS/NO pathway inhibition produced a similar effect on baroreflex activity. Rats treated with nicotine showed reduced slopes in the baroreflex curves exhibited by PE and SNP in comparison to the saline treated rats, suggesting a reduced baroreflex response. In rats treated with nicotine, there was a decrease from 2.1 ±0.2 ms/mmHg to 1.1 ±0.2 ms/mmHg in the baroreflex sensitivity exhibited by the PE. A similar reduction from 0.9 ±0.1 ms/mmHg to 0.4 ±0.1 ms/mmHg was seen in the baroreflex sensitivity exhibited by SNP. These results were statistically significant (P In short summary, the study was quite clear in explaining the involvement of NO/NOS pathway in the reduction of baroreflex activity caused by nicotine. First of all, inhibiting NOS using L-NAME caused similar reduction in baroreflex response as nicotine. Secondly, this effect could be reversed with the substrate of NOS (L-arginine). Thirdly, having both nicotine and L-NAME did not cause any further reduction in baroreflex response. The inhibition of HO by ZnPP had no effect on the baroreflex sensitivity in nicotine treated rats, implying that there is no direct role of HO pathway in the nicotinic-baroreflex activity. Any decrease in baroreflex sensitivity by nicotine could be reversed with hemin as the curve deviated more towards saline treated rats. Interestingly, when rats were treated with L-NAME or with ODQ, the protective effect of hemin to reverse the reduction in baroreflex sensitivity was no longer evident. This suggested that the initial reduction in baroreflex response was probably due to an increased activity of NOS that was no longer seen when L-NAME was used. Indeed, the activity of HO and NOS was found to increase in the brainstem tissue of rats treated with nicotine in the presence of hemin. Together, these findings imply that NOS is a downstream pathway responsible for changes in baroreflex sensitivity and hemin is somehow feeding into this pathway and activating it to facilitate baroreflex resp onse. There was no reduction in baroreflex response caused by nicotine with carbon monoxide release agent (CORM-2). This is supporting the idea that reduced baroreflex response is possibly due to NOS activity and not related to CO. Likely impact of research outcome The results implicated NOS pathways to be responsible for the deteriorating effects of nicotine on baroreflex sensitivity. Although, the current study implicated NOS pathways as a downstream mechanism and HO acting at the upstream level, more work is needed to investigate the effects of CORM-2 and hemin and shed light on the cellular cascades responsible for bringing these changes on baroreflex sensitivity. Taking into consideration that the ultimate pathways involved in the baroreceptor dysfunction from this study is NOS related, activation of NOS could be an important therapeutic target in treating the deteriorating effects of nicotine on cardiovascular system, especially the baroreceptor dysfunction. However, it is too early to accept this claim as these results need to be replicated and clinical trials must be carried out before considering any changes in the clinical practice. Future work and conclusion At present, this study is unlikely to have any major impact on the development of therapeutic drugs. Except the possible involvement of NOS, the signalling cascades responsible for baroreflex dysfunction still remain unclear. Contrary to these findings, the same author previously reported that CO formed by HO attenuated the baroreflex sensitivity in the nucleus tractus solitarii of rats (Lo et al., 2000; Lo et al., 2006). The author has attempted to justify the possible variation between the two studies with the use of conscious rats in the current study and anesthetised rats in the previous study. In addition, the inhibitor of HO was injected directly into the medullary nucleus in the previous study as opposed to an intravenous injection in the current study. Although these changes may contribute to the differences in terms of accuracy and reliability of the results, they are unlikely to fully account for the involvement of CO mediated changes in baroreflex sensitivity. Therefore th ese experiments need to be replicated before considering any clinical trials. The whole brainstem was dissected to measure the activity of NOS. This may not accurately reflect the levels of NOS in the cardiovascular nuclei of medulla therefore the study can be extended to investigate this. The use of animal models to test baroreflex sensitivity and the pharmacological agents to counteract such changes may not work similarly in humans. Baroreflex sensitivity is blunted to different degrees with increasing age (huang et al., 2007) and this may have an effect on the appropriate dose required to show any therapeutic benefits. Finally there could be intrinsic pathways affecting the baroreflex response because autonomic control can be influenced by different variables including mood, alertness and mental activity. Therefore, any future studies must take these factors into consideration. Words 2069 References: Abraham NG, Kappas A.Pharmacological and clinical aspects of heme oxygenase.Pharmacol Rev. 2008 Mar;60(1):79-127. doi: 10.1124/pr.107.07104. Epub 2008 Mar 6. Review. Erratum in: Pharmacol Rev. 2008 Jun;60(2):242. Ashworth-Preece M, Jarrott B, Lawrence AJ (1998) Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the rat and primate nucleus tractus solitarius and on rat and human inferior vagal (nodose) ganglia: evidence from in vivo microdialysis and [125I] alpha-bungarotoxin autoradiography. Neuroscience 83: 1113–1122. Giannattasio C, Mangoni A, Stella ML, Carugo S, Grassi G, et al. (1994) Acute effects of smoking on radial artery compliance in humans. J Hypertension 12: 691–696. Huang CC, Sandroni P, Sletten DM, Weigand SD, Low PA.Effect of age on adrenergic and vagal baroreflex sensitivity in normal subjects.Muscle Nerve. 2007 Nov;36(5):637-42. Li L, Hsu A, Moore PK.Actions and interactions of nitric oxide, carbon monoxide and hydrogen sulphide in the cardiovascular system and in inflammationa tale of three gases!Pharmacol Ther. 2009 Sep;123(3):386-400. doi: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2009.05.005. Epub 2009 May 30. Review. Lin CH, Lo WC, Hsiao M, Tung CS, Tseng CJ (2004) Interactions of carbon monoxide and metabotropic glutamate receptor groups in the nucleus tractus solitarii of rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 308: 1213–1218 Lo WC, Jan CR, Chiang HT, Tseng CJ (2000) Modulatory effects of carbon monoxide on baroreflex activation in nucleus tractus solitarii of rats. Hypertension 35: 1253–1257. Lo WC, Lu PJ, Ho WY, Hsiao M, Tseng CJ (2006) Induction of heme oxygenase- 1 is involved in carbon monoxide-mediated central cardiovascular regulation. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 318: 8–16. Lo WJ, Liu HW, Lin HC, Ger LP, Tung CS, et al. (1996) Modulatory effects of nitric oxide on baroreflex activation in the brainstem nuclei of rats. Chin J Physiol 39: 57–62. Prado C. M., Martins M. A., and Tibà ©rio I. F. L. C. (2011) Nitric oxide in asthma physiopathology,ISRN Allergy, 2011:1-13. Taqatqeh F, Mergia E, Neitz A, Eysel UT, Koesling D, Mittmann T.More than a retrograde messenger: nitric oxide needs two cGMP pathways to induce hippocampal long-term potentiation.J Neurosci. 2009 Jul 22;29(29):9344-50. Tzeng E (2009) Carbon monoxide: vascular therapeutic for the future. Vascular 17 Suppl 1: S55–62. Zhang F, Kaide JI, Rodriguez-Mulero F, Abraham NG, Nasjletti A (2001) Vasoregulatory function of the heme-heme oxygenase-carbon monoxide system. Am J Hypertens 14(6 Pt 2): 62S–67S

Importance and uses of contrastive linguistics Essay

Introduction: Contrastive Linguistics, roughly defined as a subdiscipline of linguistics which is concerned with the comparison of two or more (subsystems of) languages, has long been associated primarily with language teaching. Apart from this applied aspect, however, it also has a strong theoretical purpose, contributing to our understanding of language typology and language universals. The study of two languages in contrast, here called contrastive analysis, has been referred to by a variety of names, not all of which mean the same to all writers. One can find the following terms used: contrastive studies, contrastive language studies, contrastive linguistics, applied contrastive studies, contrastive description and others. contrastive analysis investigates the differences between pairs (or small sets) of languages against the background of similarities and with the purpose of providing input to applied disciplines such as foreign language teaching and translation studies. With its largely desc riptive focus contrastive linguistics provides an interface between theory and application. It makes use of theoretical findings and models of language description but is driven by the objective of applicability. Contrastive studies mostly deal with the comparison of languages that are ‘socio-culturally linked’, i.e. languages whose speech communities overlap in some way, typically through (natural or instructed) bilingualism . Much progress has been made in classifying the languages of the earth into genetic families, each having descent from a single precursor, and in tracing such developments through time. The result is called â€Å"comparative linguistics.† Of even greater importance for the future technology of thought is what might be called â€Å"contrastive linguistics.† This plots the outstanding differences among tongues – in grammar, logic, and general analysis of experience.A major influence on the development of the contrastive analysis approach has been the interest shown in it by language teachers and learners, and much CA has been undertaken with language teaching rather than translation in mind. One can prevent development of errors through a prior contrastive analysis and error analysis, leading to the development of appropriate teaching materials to  reinforce correct language learning. Relevance and uses of contrastive linguistics: The relevance of CL to translation: The emphasis of much of the work on CL on teaching and language learning raises questions about its relevance to translators. At a practical level, it is probably most useful in pointing out areas where direct translation of a term or phrase will not convey accurately in the second language the intended meaning of the first. At a global level, it leads the translator to look at broader issues such as whether the structure of the discourse for a given text-type is the same in both languages. Furthermore, although Contrastive Analysis is widely practised, there are a number of theoretical and practical problems in its application, all of which must affect judgements as to its usefulness in preparing or evaluating translations. There is some overlap between these problems, but they can nevertheless be related to specific difficulties of identifying a common ground for comparison, comparing descriptions of different languages, taking account of psycholinguistic and sociocultural factors, and taking account of extratextual and intertextual factors. Identifying a common ground for comparison All comparisons require that there be a common ground against which variation may be noted, a constant that underlies and makes possible the variables that are identified. Fonnal similarity is unreliable for several reasons. In the first place, a particular grammatical structure in one language may be a requirement while in another it may be one choice amongst several; in the second place, the choice represented by a grammatical structure in one language may have a different significance in that language from the choice represented by an apparently equivalent structure in another language .in the third place, in one language a particular structure may be unmarked while in another it may be marked. A pair of sentences might be semantically and/or pragmatically equivalent but have widely varying likelihoods of occurrence in the languages from which they are drawn. A simple example of all these points is that of the Portuguese expression â€Å"muito obrigado/a and the English expressio n much obliged. These  are syntactically and semantically comparable but have a different likelihood of occurrence, muito obrigado/a being the normal way of thanking in Portuguese and much obliged being a rare and more restricted usage than thanks a lot (and other related expressions) in English. Comparing descriptions of different languages Apart from the real but unavoidable problems arising out of comparisons of descriptions that utilize different linguistic models, there are problems that arise even between descriptions that utilize the same categories and theoretical framework.Understanding between and among disparate cultures has challenged mankind throughout history; and clearly, communication, intercultural communication, is a key element in achieving understanding. We believe a disciplined, linguistic approach to the study of intercultural communication, an approach that includes the building of linguistic corpora, research in contrastive rhetoric, and practical, real life application of the best practices learned, can provide valuable insights toward achieving understanding among cultures The relationship between contrastive analysis and translation The relationship between CL and translation is bidirectional. On the one hand, the translation of specific pieces of text may provide the data for CL On the other, CL may provide explanations of difficulties encountered in translation.The crucial factors here are what size of language sample has been chosen for translation, whether it is naturally occurring or fabricated for the purpose, and whether the translation is the analyst’s own. Though the focus of CL may continue to shift towards pragmatics and discourse analysis, its use in translation is not inevitable. It is however unlikely that it can be dispensed with completely either in the training of translators or in the assessment of translations, even in its more traditional lexico-grammatical manifestations; CL has arisen as a result of the needs of the language teaching profession and this project is no exception in that one of its major objectives is to provide teachers with assistance in the use of parallel concordancing in the classroom.It gives valuable evidence for translators on the transferability of certain collocations and colligations from one language to another. The f uture of CL’s use in translation may well lie in projects such as this, which are capable of providing with equal  facility explanations of past translating decisions and guidance as to prospective ones. As a useful learning tool: Knowledge and understanding of languages is increasingly important, and this course focuses on how such knowledge can be applied. It helps learners know more clearly and finding similarities and differences between them, thereby detecting errors, which bilingual learners often make, and how to fix. This assignment is based on contrastive linguistics. It uses many methods, especially contrastive method and surveys on grammatical aspect of these words. This study uses one-way transfer. We find a lot of two languages’ differences which may be make errors in structure and semantics. It is useful for bilingual learners to find mistakes which they can meet. Contrastive linguistic gives a comparative method to translate a learner’s thinking in an informed way. Giving structure to his/her intuitive relationship to the language. This bilingual approach in cl saves the students’ infinite time and labour. It has been proven that students learn faster and more effectively us ing it.Since it is our nature to compare, Contrastive Linguistics is the technique that clarifies our understanding of the language. For learners, similarities between languages cause no difficulties, while differences cause interference to learning. Through Contrastive Linguistics we can target and resolve the typical difficulties and Common Mistakes of our students. We can examine aspects that would not normally be noticed without such comparison. Bi-lingual comparative courses overlap in fruitful collaboration with other approaches. They clear away students’ deep-rooted mistakes and empower teachers with the answers to many of their students’ doubts. In Language Teaching: The change that has to take place in the language behavior of a foreign language student can be equated with the differences between the structure of the student’s native language and culture and that of the target language and culture. The task of the linguist is to identify these differences. The task of the writer of a foreign language teaching program is to develop materials which will be based on a statement of these differences; the task of the foreign language teacher is to be aware of these differences and to be prepared to teach them; the task of the student is to learn them. Importance of CL due to growing demand: There is a growing demand from both public and private sectors for professionals combining excellent language skills and sound linguistic theory and methodology. You study linguistic theory, description and methodology with a particular focus on corpus approaches and a strong multilingual component with high relevance for language professionals, especially in the field of foreign/second language learning, teaching (and testing), linguistics focusing on usage-based models and methods in language research and their applications, especially in multilingual contexts. It help students acquire the ability to read, write, speak, and understand world languages reach maximum capability with respect to communications, effective reasoning, and analytical thinking; to educate students for living and working in a competitive global society.. As the field of linguistics became more accepted as a discipline, other scholars from different fields began to incorporate language-related topics into thei r work. Contrative Linguistics found its way into sociology, anthropology, language arts, foreign language learning and teaching. It helps the translators to analyse the basic meaning and gist of the second language giving them an edge in interpretation jobs .